Chapter 2 – Method – Landscape Sensitivity to Renewable Energy Development

Chapter 2 – Method

Scope of the assessment

The landscape sensitivity assessments focus on the landscape considerations associated with ground-mounted solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind energy developments at a strategic level.

Spatial framework for the assessment

The assessment uses the spatial framework of Landscape Character Types (LCTs) and component Landscape Character Areas (LCAs) identified by the 2024 Landscape Character Assessment for South Oxfordshire and Vale of White Horse. These are shown in the map on the main menu, and can also be explored in more details in the Landscape Character Assessment digital report.

Characteristics of solar PV and wind energy development types and their potential landscape impacts

Solar PV developments

Solar PV developments consist of racks of panels and associated structures such as inverters or transformer substations, fencing, and screening planting.

These developments can occupy substantial areas of ground which may be visible, particularly if located on slopes. Landscape effects may include the following:

Solar PV developments may be particularly visible in open landscapes or on upper slopes of hillsides or where overlooked;
On a sunny day they can appear blue, while on a cloudy day they can appear a dark grey, both of which contrast with surrounding green areas;
The presence of solar PV panels and associated infrastructure may increase the perceived human influence on the landscape and erode intrinsically rural character;
Solar PV development will change the land use and appearance of a field or fields, affecting land cover patterns;
The regular edges of solar PV developments may be conspicuous in more irregular landscapes (particularly where field boundaries are irregular);
The height of racks (up to 4 metres) may overtop typical hedgerow field boundaries;
Racks may rotate to follow the sun, resulting in noise,
Screen planting around solar PV developments may change the sense of enclosure of a landscape and restrict or alter important views;
Construction of solar PV development may result in damage to landscape features such as hedgerow field boundaries and alter the landscape scale; and
Structures may appear out of place in particularly wild or undeveloped landscape which are valued for their qualities of remoteness.

Wind energy developments

All turbines considered in this study are substantial vertical structures that may be highly visible within the landscape. Wind energy developments may affect the landscape in the following ways:

Construction of turbines and related infrastructure may result in the direct loss of landscape features e.g. trees and hedgerows;
The movement of the blades is a unique feature of wind energy development, setting them apart from other stationary tall structures in the landscape, and may affect characteristics of stillness and remoteness;
The presence of turbines may increase the influence of built development on the landscape;
Turbines may be perceived as out of scale in relation to human scale features in the landscape e.g. farmsteads, rural lanes, walls and hedgerows;
Turbines on skylines may compete with existing skyline features (e.g. church towers) for prominence, where prominent undeveloped skylines or landmark features are characteristic of the landscape; and
Access tracks or upgrades on access routes may be highly visible, particularly in open upland landscapes or undeveloped landscapes.

Type and scale of solar PV developments considered

The assessment considers the landscape sensitivity of the landscape within South Oxfordshire and Vale of White Horse to ground-mounted solar PV developments. Such developments consist of ‘arrays’ of solar PV panels, usually around three metres in height (although can be up to four metres) and mounted on aluminium/stainless steel frames, with associated infrastructure including inverters, on-site powerhouse, security fencing and CCTV. Solar PV developments in domestic gardens or roof mounted panels are outside the scope of this study.

The assessment judges the suitability of different scales of solar PV developments, based on bandings that reflect those that are most likely to be put forward by developers. The sizes used for the assessment are set out below, with the approximate MW equivalent):

Very small solar PV installation: Up to 1 hectares (equivalent to <1 MW)
Small solar PV installation: 1 to 5 hectares (equivalent to 1-4 MW)
Medium solar PV installation: 5 to 20 hectares (equivalent to 5-15 MW)
Large solar PV installation: 20 to 50 hectares (equivalent to 16-40 MW)
Very large solar PV installation: 50 to 120 hectares (equivalent to 41-100 MW)

Proposed solar PV developments larger than 120 hectares have not been considered in this assessment. Landscape sensitivity to these very large schemes would be categorised as “high” sensitivity regardless of location, requiring developers to pay particular attention to this issue in their specific applications.

Type and scale of wind energy developments considered

For wind energy, the assessment considers five scenarios, as set out below:

Very small turbines: <25 metres tip height
Small wind turbines: 25-60m tip height
Medium wind turbines: 60-100m tip height
Large wind turbines: 100-150m tip height
Very large wind turbines: 150-220m tip height

Typically, larger wind turbines will be developed in larger groups (wind farms) at larger scales. Groups of turbines will generally have a higher impact than singular turbines.

Cumulative effects

The LSA does not include assessment of the potential cumulative impacts of multiple developments as different combinations of development are not known at this stage.

As larger numbers of renewable energy developments are built, it is increasingly necessary to consider their cumulative effects. Cumulative effects of multiple schemes are a significant issue for planning authorities, particularly for free standing solar PV developments, which tend to cluster around grid connection points.

The most significant cumulative effects are those that result in changes in the character of a landscape to such an extent as to transform it into a different landscape type. It should be recognised that if numerous developments are built, then at some point another development could tip the balance through its additional effects.

Key considerations are how different developments relate to each other, their frequency as one moves through the landscape, and their visual separation. These are most appropriately considered at the individual site level, including through the process of Cumulative LVIA. Additional information on the LVIA and Cumulative LVIA process are included in Appendix A.

Evaluating landscape sensitivity

This assessment draws on advice contained in Natural England’s ‘Approach to landscape sensitivity assessment’ (2019) which supersedes ‘Techniques and criteria for judging capacity and sensitivity’ (Natural England, 2002). This describes the term ‘landscape sensitivity’, within the context of spatial planning and land management, as follows:

“Landscape sensitivity may be regarded as a measure of the resilience, or robustness, of a landscape to withstand specified change arising from development types or land management practices, without undue negative effects on the landscape and visual baseline and their value.”

It is a term applied to landscape character and the associated visual resource, combining judgements of their susceptibility to the specific development type/development scenario or other change being considered together with the value(s) related to that landscape and visual resource.

Assessment criteria

Landscape sensitivity assessment requires judgements on both landscape susceptibility (how vulnerable the landscape is to change from the type being assessed, in this case solar PV and wind energy developments) and landscape value (consensus about importance, which can be recognised through designation as well as through descriptions within the Landscape Character Assessment).

The selection of landscape sensitivity indicators (‘criteria’) for this study is informed by the attributes of landscape that could be affected by solar and wind energy development. These consider the ‘landscape’, ‘visual’ and ‘perceptual’ aspects of sensitivity. Their selection is also based on current best practice and experience of LUC in undertaking similar studies elsewhere in the UK.

The following five criteria headings are used for this study:

Landform and scale (including sense of openness/enclosure);
Landcover (including field and settlement patterns);
Historic landscape character;
Visual character (including skylines); and
Perceptual and scenic qualities.

The following text provides guidance and examples of higher and lower sensitivity features/attributes for applying the criteria in the study area, for solar PV and wind energy, respectively. The assessments present a commentary against each criterion to inform the judgements on levels of sensitivity. It is important to note that the relative importance of each criterion varies between landscapes (due to differences in landscape character). The initial stage of the assessment involved a thorough desk-based study drawing on sources of spatial and descriptive information regarding the landscape (see Appendix B). This was supplemented by field survey work undertaken by a team of landscape professionals to verify the findings.

Solar PV assessment criteria

Landform and scale (including sense of openness/enclosure)

A flat or gently undulating lowland landscape or extensive plateau is likely to be less sensitive to solar PV development than a landscape with prominent landforms and visible slopes. This is because arrays of solar PV panels will be less easily perceived in a flat landscape than on a slope (including hills and knolls), especially higher slopes. However, flat or gently undulating landscapes which are overlooked from higher ground may have a higher sensitivity.

A landscape with a strong sense of enclosure (e.g. provided by land cover such as woodland, tree cover or high hedges) is likely to be able to provide screening for solar PV development and therefore be less sensitive than an open and unenclosed.

Low: An extensive lowland flat landscape or plateau, often a larger scale landform. A very well enclosed landscape – e.g. with fields bounded by high hedges and dense tree/woodland cover.
Low-Moderate: A simple gently rolling landscape, likely to be a medium-large scale landform. Some enclosure provided by hedges and tree/woodland cover.
Moderate: An undulating landscape, perhaps also incised by valleys, likely to be a medium-scale landform, with hidden areas as well as some visible slopes. Some areas lacking screening by field boundaries or tree cover, whilst others might have a greater sense of enclosure owing to a denser occurrence of these features.
Moderate-High: A landscape with distinct landform features, and/or irregular in topographic appearance (which may be large in scale), or a smaller scale landform. The landscape may contain prominent, visible slopes with little sense of enclosure (low, few or no hedges or trees/areas of woodland).
High: A landscape with a rugged landform or dramatic landform features (which may be large in scale), or a small scale or intimate landform. The landform may be very steep with exposed, visible slopes and no field boundaries or tree cover to provide screening.

Landcover (including field and settlement patterns)

Since solar PV panels introduce a new land cover (of built structures), landscapes containing existing hard surfacing or built elements (e.g. urban areas, brownfield sites or large-scale horticulture) are likely to be less sensitive to field-scale solar PV development than highly rural or naturalistic landscapes. Landscapes with small-scale, more irregular field patterns are likely to be more sensitive to the introduction of solar PV developments (particularly those which would cover multiple fields) than landscapes with large, regular scale field patterns because of the risk of diluting or masking the characteristic landscape patterns (noting that large-scale fields my have increased visual sensitivity on account of less screening). This would be particularly apparent if development takes place across a number of adjacent fields where the field pattern is small and intricate (bearing in mind that the height of panels could exceed that of a hedge or stone wall).

Low: A landscape with large-scale, regular fields of mainly modern origin. An urban or ‘brownfield’ landscape.
Low-Moderate: A landscape which is mainly defined by large, modern fields or those sub-divided for non-traditional uses, e.g. horse keeping. An area of large-scale horticulture or some urban or brownfield influences.
Moderate: A landscape with a mixture of large-scale, modern fields and some smaller, more historic enclosure. A rural landscape, perhaps with some brownfield sites or urban influences.
Moderate-High: A landscape dominated by ancient, small-scale field patterns with a few isolated areas of modern enclosure and/or with some areas of semi-natural land cover.
High: A landscape characterised by small-scale, ancient field patterns and/or a landscape dominated by semi-natural land cover.

Historic landscape character

Landscapes which contain important archaeological or historic features or historic associations are likely to have a higher level of sensitivity to solar PV development. Historical features may be in the form of historic land cover types and field systems, areas of buried archaeology, historic landscapes such as Registered Parks and Gardens or buildings/structures designated for their historical significance.

Areas which make a significant contribution to the setting of a historical feature or landscape may also have higher sensitivity to solar PV development. Landscapes that are primarily of modern influence and origin will have a lower sensitivity to solar PV development.

Low: A landscape with relatively few historic features important to the character of the area and little time depth (i.e. large intensively farmed fields).
Low-Moderate: A landscape with a small number of historic features important to the character area and some time depth.
Moderate: A landscape with some visible historic features of importance to character, and a variety of time depths.
Moderate-High: A landscape with many historic features important to the area and a strong sense of time depth.
High: A landscape with a high density of historic features important to the character of the area and great time depth

Visual character (including skylines)

The relative visibility of a landscape may influence its sensitivity to solar PV development. An elevated landscape such as a hill range or plateau, which is viewed from other landscapes, may be more sensitive than an enclosed landscape, since any solar panels will be more widely seen. Landscapes which have important visual relationships with other areas, for example where one area provides a backdrop to or is overlooked from a neighbouring area (which may be a designated landscape such as National Landscapes), are considered more sensitive than those with few visual relationships. The extent of inter-visibility may be modified by the importance of these views to appreciation of the landscape, and whether adjacent landscapes provide a setting for one another. Areas with frequent visual receptors (e.g. a strong network of rights of way/promoted viewpoints) will have higher levels of sensitivity.

Prominent and distinctive and/or undeveloped skylines, or skylines with important landmark features, are likely to be more sensitive to solar PV development because panels may detract from these skylines as features in the landscape, or draw attention away from existing landform or landmark features on skylines if not sited appropriately. Important landmark features on the skyline might include historic features or monuments as well as landforms. Where skylines are affected by development, e.g. through the presence of electricity pylons, the addition of solar panels may lead to visual confusion due to differences in scale. Therefore, developed skylines might not necessarily indicate lower sensitivity.

Low: An enclosed, self-contained landscape, or one with weak connections to neighbouring areas. A landscape in which skylines are not prominent, and there are no important landmark features on the skyline.
Low-Moderate: A landscape with limited connections to neighbouring areas, and/or where adjacent landscapes are not visually related. A landscape in which skylines are simple, flat or gently convex and/or there are very few landmark features – other skylines in adjacent LCTs may be more prominent.
Moderate: A landscape which has some inter-visibility with neighbouring areas. A landscape with some prominent skylines, but these are not particularly distinctive – there may be some landmark features on the skyline.
Moderate-High: A landscape which is intervisible with several areas, and/or where adjacent areas are strongly interrelated. A landscape with prominent skylines that may form an important backdrop to views from settlements or important viewpoints, and/or with important landmark features.
High: A landscape which has important visual relationships with one or more neighbouring areas. It or the landscape(s) it is visible from is designated as a National Landscape. A landscape with prominent or distinctive undeveloped skylines, or with important landmark features on skylines.

Perceptual and scenic qualities

Landscapes that are relatively remote or tranquil tend to be more sensitive to solar PV development, since solar panels may be perceived as intrusive. Landscapes which are relatively free from overt human activity and disturbance, and which have a perceived naturalness or a strong feel of traditional rurality, will therefore be more sensitive. Qualities such as tranquillity can be found even in settled areas, where the influence of overtly modern development is reduced. Landscapes close to settlements can also be valued for their accessibility. Solar PV development will generally be less intrusive in landscapes which are strongly influenced by modern development, including settlement, industrial and commercial development and infrastructure.

Landscapes that have a high scenic quality (including those within the National Landscapes) will be more sensitive. Scenic qualities can include contrasts and combinations of landform and landcover. Scenic qualities are recorded in the Landscape Character Assessment, National Landscape Management Plans and noted from fieldwork.

Low: A landscape without attractive character, with no pleasing combinations of features, visual contrasts and/or dramatic elements, such as industrial areas or derelict land.
Low-Moderate: A landscape with much human activity and modern development, such as industrial areas. A landscape of limited attractive character, with few pleasing combinations of features, visual contrasts and/or dramatic elements.
Moderate: A rural or semi-rural landscape with much human activity and dispersed modern development, such as settlement fringes. A landscape of intermittently attractive character, with occasional pleasing combinations of features, visual contrasts and/or dramatic elements. Some may be within a National Landscape.
Moderate-High: A rural landscape with some modern development and human activity, such as intensive farmland. A landscape of attractive character, with some pleasing combinations of features, visual contrasts and/or dramatic elements. Most or all may be designated as a National Landscape.
High: A more naturalistic landscape and/or one with little modern human influence and development. A landscape of consistently attractive character, with pleasing combinations of features, visual contrasts and/or dramatic elements. All or the vast majority is designated for its scenic qualities. A tranquil landscape with little or no overt sign of modern human activity and development.

Wind energy assessment criteria

Landform and scale (including sense of openness/enclosure)

A flat or gently sloping landform is likely to be less sensitive to wind energy development than a landscape with a dramatic rugged landform, distinct landform features (including prominent hills and valleys) or pronounced undulations. Larger scale landforms are likely to be less sensitive than smaller scale landforms – because turbines may appear out of scale, detract from visually important landforms or appear visually confusing (due to turbines being at varying heights) in the latter types of landscapes. Landscapes with frequent human scale features, such as settlements, farmsteads, small farm woodlands, trees and hedges may be particularly sensitive to larger turbines. This is because large features such as wind turbines may dominate smaller scale features within the landscape.

Low: An extensive lowland flat landscape or plateau with few/no human-scale features; often a larger scale landform.
Low-Moderate: A simple gently rolling landscape with occasional human-scale features such as trees and domestic buildings; likely to be a medium-large scale landform.
Moderate: An undulating landscape, perhaps also incised by valleys, likely to be a medium scale landform, with hidden areas as well as some visible slopes.
Moderate-High: A landscape with distinct landform features, and/or irregular in topographic appearance (which may be large in scale), or a smaller scale landform. The landscape may contain prominent, visible slopes and frequent human-scale features.
High: A landscape with a rugged landform or dramatic landform features (which may be large in scale), or a small scale or intimate landform often with a dense distribution of human-scale features, such as woodland. The landform may be very steep with exposed, visible slopes.

Landcover (including field and settlement patterns)

Simple, regular landscapes with extensive areas of consistent land cover are likely to be less sensitive to wind energy development than landscapes with more complex or irregular land cover patterns, smaller and/or irregular field sizes. This is because landscapes with simple, regular land cover are less likely to be negatively affected by the footprint and access roads of wind turbine installations.

Low: An open, continuous landscape with uniform land cover, or an urban or ‘brownfield’ landscape.
Low-Moderate: A landscape of large open fields of modern enclosure, with little variety inland cover. A landscape which contains areas of brownfield sites or urban influences.
Moderate: A landscape with medium sized fields (or a mix of modern and historic enclosure) and some variations in land cover. A rural landscape which may contain some brownfield sites or urban influences.
Moderate-High: A landscape with irregular or small-scale fields and a variety in land cover. A rural landscape, perhaps with some areas of semi-natural land cover.
High: A landscape with a strong variety in land cover, complex field patterns and/or semi-natural land cover. The field pattern may be characterised by small-scale, ancient fields.

Historic landscape character

Landscapes which contain important archaeological or historic features or historic associations are likely to have a higher level of sensitivity to wind energy development. Historical features may be in the form of historic land cover types and field systems, areas of buried archaeology, historic designed landscapes such as a Registered Park and Garden, or buildings/structures designated for their historical significance.

Areas which make a significant contribution to the setting of a historical feature or landscapes may also have higher sensitivity to wind energy development. Landscapes that are primarily of modern influence and origin will have a lower sensitivity to wind energy development.

Low: A landscape with relatively few historic features important to the character of the area, and little time depth (i.e. large intensively farmed fields).
Low-Moderate: A landscape with a small number of historic features important to the character area and some time-depth.
Moderate: A landscape with some visible historic features of importance to character, and a variety of time depths.
Moderate-High: A landscape with many historic features important to the area and a strong sense of time depth.
High: A landscape with a high density of historic features (many designations) important to the character of the area and great time depth.

Visual character (including skylines)

The relative visibility of a landscape may influence its sensitivity to wind development. An elevated landscape such as a hill range or plateau, which is viewed from other landscapes, may be more sensitive than a landscape with limited visibility. Landscapes which have important visual relationships with other areas, for example where one area provides a backdrop to or is overlooked from a neighbouring area (which may be a designated landscape such as a National Landscape), are considered more sensitive than those with few visual relationships. The extent of inter-visibility may be modified by the importance of these views to appreciation of the landscape, and whether adjacent landscapes provide a setting for one another. Areas with frequent visual receptors (e.g. a strong network of rights of way/promoted viewpoints) will have higher levels of sensitivity.

Prominent and distinctive and/or undeveloped skylines, or skylines with important landmark features, are likely to be more sensitive to wind energy development because turbines may detract from these skylines as features in the landscape, or draw attention away from existing landform or landmark features on skylines. Important landmark features on the skyline might include historic features or monuments as well as landforms. Where skylines are affected by development, e.g. through the presence of electricity pylons or existing turbines, the addition of turbines of a different scale may lead to visual confusion. Therefore, the presence of existing development cannot always assume a lower sensitivity to new development.

Low: An enclosed, self-contained landscape, or one with weak connections to neighbouring areas. A landscape in which skylines are not prominent, and there are no important landmark features on the skyline.
Low-Moderate: A landscape with limited connections to neighbouring areas, and/or where adjacent landscapes are not visually related. A landscape in which skylines are simple, flat or gently convex and/or there are very few landmark features on the skyline – other skylines in adjacent LCTs may be more prominent.
Moderate: A landscape which has some intervisibility with neighbouring areas, and/or where relationships between adjacent landscapes are of more importance. A landscape with some prominent skylines, but these are not particularly distinctive – there may be some landmark features on the skyline.
Moderate-High: A landscape which is intervisible with several areas, and/or where adjacent areas are strongly interrelated. A landscape with prominent skylines that may form an important backdrop to views from settlements or important viewpoints, and/or with important landmark features.
High: A landscape which has important visual relationships with one or more neighbouring areas. It or the landscape(s) it is visible from is designated as a National Landscape. A landscape with prominent or distinctive undeveloped skylines, or with important landmark features on skylines.

Perceptual and scenic qualities

Landscapes that are relatively remote or tranquil tend to be more sensitive to wind energy, since turbines may be perceived as intrusive. Landscapes which are relatively free from overt human activity and disturbance, and which have a perceived naturalness or a strong feel of traditional rurality, will therefore be more sensitive. Qualities such as tranquillity can be found even in settled areas, where the influence of overtly modern development is reduced. Landscapes close to settlements can also be valued for their accessibility. Wind energy development will generally be less intrusive in landscapes which are strongly influenced by modern development, including settlement, industrial and commercial development and infrastructure.

Landscapes that have a high scenic quality (including those within the National Landscapes) will be more sensitive to wind energy development. Scenic qualities can include contrasts and combinations of landform and landcover. Scenic qualities are recorded in the Landscape Character Assessment, National Landscape Management Plan and noted from fieldwork.

Low: A landscape without attractive character, with no pleasing combinations of features, visual contrasts and/or dramatic elements, such as industrial areas or derelict land. A landscape with much human activity and modern development, such as industrial areas.
Low-Moderate: A landscape of limited attractive character, with few pleasing combinations of features, visual contrasts and/or dramatic elements. A rural or semi-rural landscape with much human activity and dispersed modern development, such as settlement fringes.
Moderate: A landscape of intermittently attractive character, with occasional pleasing combinations of features, visual contrasts and/or dramatic elements. Some may be within a National Landscape. A rural landscape with some modern development and human activity, such as intensive farmland.
Moderate-High: A landscape of attractive character, with some pleasing combinations of features, visual contrasts and/or dramatic elements. Most or all may be designated as a National Landscape. A more naturalistic landscape and/or one with little modern human influence and development.
High: A landscape of consistently attractive character, with pleasing combinations of features, visual contrasts and/or dramatic elements. All or the vast majority is designated for its scenic qualities. A tranquil landscape with little or no overt sign of modern human activity and development.

Making overall judgements on landscape sensitivity

As with all assessments based upon data and information which is to a greater or lesser extent subjective, some caution is required in its interpretation. This is to avoid the suggestion that certain landscape features or qualities can automatically be associated with certain sensitivities – the reality is that an assessment of a landscape’s sensitivity to development is the result of a complex interplay of often unequally weighted variables (or ‘criteria’).

There may be one criterion that has a strong influence on landscape sensitivity in a particular LCT (or LCA) which increases the overall landscape sensitivity score (an example for solar PV might be a landscape with a prominent/highly visible ridgeline, or significant coverage of semi-natural habitats). There may also be criteria that produce conflicting scores. For example, a small-scale landscape with historic field patterns may also afford greater screening of panels from topography and a dense network of hedgerows. A conflicting example for wind could be in the context of a settled landscape. While it would have a greater human influence (indicating a lower sensitivity to new development), it would also contain more human-scale features that could be affected by large-scale wind turbines (indicating a higher sensitivity). Conversely, a more remote landscape is likely to lack human-scale features but is likely to present a higher sensitivity from a perceptual point of view.

In these situations, a professional judgement is made on overall landscape sensitivity, taking all criteria into account in the context of their importance to the landscape character and quality of the individual LCT/LCA.

Landscape sensitivity is expressed on five-level scale from low sensitivity to high sensitivity. A landscape of higher sensitivity is likely to experience a greater impact on landscape character as a result of a given development type/scale, and a landscape of lower sensitivity is likely to experience a lesser impact on landscape character.

As this is a strategic study, a smaller-scale of development will generally result in a smaller impact on the landscape character and therefore a lower sensitivity. As the scale of development increases, so does the likely impact and landscape sensitivity.

Presentation of results

The full landscape sensitivity assessments for each of the LCTs are presented in separate assessment profiles. These are structured as follows:

A map of the LCT, with component Character Areas and representative photographs;
A summary description of the LCT against each of the assessment criteria;
An overall discussion on the landscape sensitivity of the LCT to new solar PV and wind energy developments, referencing particular features, attributes or locations which may be more or less sensitive;
Landscape sensitivity scores for new solar PV and wind energy development within each of the different development scenarios, for each LCA.

The next chapter (Chapter 3) sets out the overall results of the assessments.